Garde^J^
VOL. XXII.
INDIANAPOLIS, IND., SATURDAY, JULY 30, 1887.
NO. 31
TOENADOES.-No, 3.
Number of Tornadoes   in   205  Years—
Where they Occurred-—Scientific Observations.
[Concluded.1
The following table shows the total number of tornadoes observed in the United
States during a period of 205 years, from
1082, to 1880 inclusive. It would seem that
tornadoes are getting more frequent, but
that is not certain at all. Two hundred
years ago the country had very sparse settlements compared with the present, and
therefore few observers:
STATES AMI   I KRRITORIES.
No. of Storms. Nu. of storms.
Arkansas  M
Tennessee :u
Kentucky 20
Massachusetts  22
Louisiana  HI
Virginia 18
Maryland 16
Connecticut  13
New Jersey  12
Florida 10
New Hampshire    *
Maine    7
Indian Territory    6
Vermont   4
Colorado    4
Wast Virginia    2
Rhode Island    1
Dt-laware    1
District uf Columbia    l
 ua
 128
Illinois .'...
 127
 118
Ohio	
102
  92.
Indiana	
Minnesota	
Texas	
  84
  78
  73
Michigan	
  71
  117
Wisconsin	
North Carolina	
61
 H
  09
Nebraska	
  02
Mississippi  49
Dakota 46
'I'IMK OK TORNADO   DEVELOPMENT  AND  REGION OF COUNTRY.
First Period.—Decemlier to March, in-
elusive, comprising the region embraced
by the following States: Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Oeorgia,Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee and
Southern Kentucky.
Second Period.—April to June, inclusive. Region: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota and Minnesota.
Third Period.—June to August, indu-
sive. Region: Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Northern Kentucky,
Western Pennsylvania, Western New
York and West Virginia.
Fourth Period.—August to November,
inclusive. Region: Maryland, Delaware,
New Jersey, Eastern Pennsylvania, Eastern New. York and the New England
States.
TORNADO RECORD  OF  THE  SEVENTEEN
YEARS LAST PAST.
Year,  storms Observed.
Kci    9
1871    9
ls72   13
1873  12
1874  21
1875  80
1876 66
1877  70
1878 !  81
Total number iu seventeen years. l.OIK.
1st. A careful study of tornado development and distribution, shows that there
are as many considerations to justify the
belief that tornadoes were quite as frequent a hundred years ago as now, and
that this degree of frequency will not
be diminished for a hundred years to
eome.
2d. The means of observation and record
for 1880 surpassed those of any other year,
because the Signal Service had greater facilities for collecting reports, and the rapid
growth of the country, with a greater zeal
of the press, brought to light many occurrences, which before would have been losll
sight of.
Year.
1S79	
Storms Observed.
1880...
1:17
1881	
1883	
1884	
1886	
 Ml
RESULTS FROM   TORNADO    REIKIRDS   OK   2(15
YEARS.
1. The rotary movemtntof the whirling tornado cloud is in 590 cases reported
as against the hands of a clock, and 2!l
cases as probably moving with the hands
of a clock.
2. Electrical discharges were observed
in 252 eases as occurring in the clouds surrounding the tornado cloud; that is, in the
clouds near the horizon; and in 84 cases as
occurring in the funnel cloud.
3. The width of the path of destruction,
supposed to embrace the distance between
the areas of sensible winds on the two
sides of the tornado cloud, varied in 1,107
cases from 1(1 to 10,500 feet, the average being 1,30(1 feet.
4. The length of the tornado's traek, as
reported in 385eases, varied from 300 yards
lowing it; and 103 as accompanying it.
A SCIENTIFIC   RESUME  ol' TORNADO  CHARACTERISTICS.
1. The forces of the tornado cloud are
active and continuous while the phenom-
non exists.
2. They are exerted successively, uninterruptedly and always in the same general directions.
3. The forces appear to be uniform.
4. The forces are not apparently diminished by having to destroy a succession of
the heaviest and strongest structure*.
5. The forces are not affected by having
to meet with, in rapid succession, totally
different objects—different In size, strength,
shape, materials, composition and structure, relative position, etc., ete.
6. The forces are exerted continuously
over a breadth of  surface varying from 50
Tornado near Redstone, Davison Co.. Dakota. Aug. 28, 18*1.    Fl
' ■    "     J
l.ys. II. Nott.
to 300 miles, the average being 24.79 miles.
5. The velocity of progression of the
tornado cloud, as determined from the report** in 201 cases, varied from 7 to 100
miles per hour, the average being 44.13
miles.
fi. The shortest time occupied by the
tornado cloud in passing a given point,
varied from "an instant" to about 20 minutes; the average being  about 74 seconds.
7. The occurrence of thunder storms in
relation to tornadoes is reported upon as
follows: In 287 cases they occurred before
the tornado cloud appeared; in 113 cases,
accompanying the tornado cloud; in 57
eases, after the disappearance of the cloud,
and in 8 cases their entire absence was
noted.
8. Concerning the time of occurrence of
the tornadoes, the hours of greatest frequency are found to be from 3:30 (o 4:00 p.
m. and from 4:30 to 5:00 p. m.
9. The State in which thegreatest number of tornadoes occurred is Missouri, followed next in order by Kansas and Georgia.
10. The month in which the largest
number of tornadoes occurred is May, followed next in order by April and June.
11. The month of greatest frequency,
that is, the month embracing the largest
number of days on which tornadoes occurred, is May.
12. The prevailing direction of progressive movement of the tornado cloud is
northeast.
13. Of 990 cases where the time of rain
was recorded, 377 reported precipitation as
! preceding the tornado; 437as following it;
i and 170 as accompanying it.
14. Of 004 cases where the time of hail
was recorded, 317 reported the precipitation as preceding   the tornado;   124 as fol-
to 000 yards.
7. The forces are exerted continuously
for distances varying from live to 200
miles.
8. The characteristics of the tornado
cloud are constant, and all of its features
and mode of development show it to lie a
wind storm, simply.
9. When the cloud disappears, it does
so from the earth upwards, its action evidently depending upon forces in the upper
regions of the atmosphere.
10. The time of day, the time of year,
and the peculiar hot and stilling condition
of the atmosphere indicate that heat is the
physical agent developing the tornado.
11. The tornado is invariably accompanied by hail, which is evidently not of
electrical formation.
12. Electricity is simply an accompaniment of the tornado, as is the hail.ami not
the primary cause.
13. The cloud is almost invariably fun-
'nel-shaped, with the small end nearest the
earth. The resistance of the atmosphere
is less at higher altitudes because of less
density, consequently the cloud spreads
out at the top.
14. The tornado cloud always has a rotary motion, from right to left.
15. It moves in a certain direction, S.
W. to N. E.,   without regard  to obstacles.
10. The tornado cloud is generally impenetrable to vision, and is sometimes
dark, like coal smoke, and then again
white, like steam.
17. The contrast between the white,
steam-like appearance of the tornado
cloud and the surrounding dark clouds
gives rise to the semblance of tire, and the
cloud appears illuminated.
18. What is called lightning by the
frightened observers is never seen by them
when the tornado cloud is observed in advance of the dark clouds to the westward
and surrounded by a clear sky.
19. What is termed the "smell of sulphur" is simply ozone in the air, which
nearly always appears after a thunder
storm.
20. It is to lie noted that a calm, cool
observer rarely reports the appearance of
lightning in the tornado cloud proper.
81, It is to be noted that lightning is always observed lie fore and after the tornado
cloud a|ipcars, but in the heavy, dark
clouds far to tbe west, north and northeast
of the tornado cloud.
22. Observers are nearly always mistaken about the distance of the flash of
lightning. Light travels with incoiiceiv-
ahlc rapidity, so doe* the electric t!uiil,and
the electric Mash is of Intense brilliancy,
consequently lightning appears much
nearer to tbe observer than ii really is.
23. Observers eaii really give no reason
for their belief that electricity is the cause
of the tornado,but almost invariably reply
to the question, "that if electricity is not
thc cause, tbey have no idea what could
produce such a terrible force."
•J.I. 1'rotii an examination of a great
many witnesses it is evident that the
reason for belief In electricity as the cause
is the sudden, aw fill, irresistible and terribly destructive force of the tornado. It is
of the air, wild and majestic, yet mysterious.
25. Many witnesses at first report the
lightning as appearing in the tornado
doud,and then after careful thought remember that the Hashes were really from
clouds far beyond the tornado cloud.
26, Almost invariably the observer is
so placed that the tornado cloud is between
him and the dark, threatening clouds to
the westward, so that in the excitement of
the occasion he cannot distinguish the
exact location of the source.
37. In the tornado's track the debris is
always carried in the direction of the moving force, frequently in the arc of and
sometimes entirely throughout a circle.
This is not a peculiarity of   electric   force.
28. Heavy and light objects are transported long distances, the latter sometimes 5(1 miles.
29. Objects tbat are carried long distances are alwaps transported to the east
or northeast, and evidently by air currents.
30. Objects carried long distances are
frequently found uninjured.
31. Vegetation is withered by the action
of the sun's heat in evaporating the fluids
from the leaves and buds that have been
broken and bruised by the whirling action
of the air in the tornado cloud. The evaporation drys and withers the foliage, and
it looks seared.
32. Where the bark of trees has lieen
chipped off or loosened in places the sap
appears and is evaporated by the action of
the sun's heat, and as a result the tender
surface of the exposed portion of the Imdy
of the tree is turned black.
:'.:!. No ordinary wind or hardly a heavy,
straight wind is able to so whip the foliage
of trees, or the leaves of grain and plants,
as to cause them to wither and appear
scorched. It requires the rapid, peculiar,
and irresistible rotary action of the air in
a tornado to accomplish this result.
34. The energy of the tornado is exhibited with no greater force in relation to
metals than in relation to other substances.