Written for the Indiana Farmer.
A Course of Chemistry And Qeology for
the Practical Farmer.
By Walter May Hew, M. D. Instructor in  Chemistry, Xew York Preparatory Medical College.
GEOLOOICAL    FORMATIONS—GENERAL
SURVEY.
The rocks that form the crust of the
earth are divided, as has been said, into
unstratified and stratified. The latter cover much the larger portion of our globe,
the unstratified occurring chielly in mountain ranges. Their usual and natural position is underneath the stratified rocks
which have been formed from and upon
them by the action of tho water. Some
upheaval by volcanic action is the most
frequent cause that brings them to the
surface.
1. IUNEON OH UN STRATIFIED ROCKS.
a. tlranites.
Granite is a mixture of quartz ;(which is
pure silica) with felspar containing alumina, silica, potash and soda. As a rule
granites give rise to barren soils. The decay of the rocks yields stiff clay which is
washed down to the foot of tho mountain
forming bogs and land that has nothing,
but heather or the poorest pasturage while
the quartz forms silicious sands that are
exceedingly unprolific. The sides of a
mountain that are most exposed to wind
and rain will have the sandy soil representing risidual quartz. Mica ls present in
very, small quantities. When it. or hornblende enters more largely Into the composition of granite the latter may be comparatively fertile. Granite can be recognized by its being a mass of iron hardness
in which rectangular masses of white felspar are blended with crystals of quartz
and Hakes of black or silvery mica.
6. Trap Rocks.
The chief varieties of trap rock are basalt and greenstone. Both are sometimes
called whinstones. These trap rocks contain felspar and hornblende instead of
quartz and as the hornblende contains
much lime and magnesia, the traps containing these with the alumina, potash
and soda of felspar are much more fertile
than granite. The addition of lime which
often benefits a granite soil is useless as a
rule for the traps unless the lime of the decayed rock has been used up without a
fresh plowing that exposes more of the
rock to the processes of decay or weathering.
"Trap rock" says Dana, "is an igneous
rock, one that was ejected in a melted
state from a deep seated source of lire,
through fissures made by fractures of the
earth's crust. The rooks through which
the molten rock came up will be filled
with crystallizations, garnets, tourmaline,
etc., that can only form when rocks are
liquified by heat."
c. Volcanic Rocks,
These, like the traps, contain more lime,
and so are more fertile than granite. The
soil of some volcanic regions is exceedingly fertile and the volcAnic matter is often
used as manure. The fact that they are
mostly compounds of felspar and hornblende accounts for the fertility that attaches to them. All such volcanic rocks
are presumed to have once flowed as lava
at a period subsequent to the earliest stratifications.
The above constitute the primitive materials of  the earth's frame-work though
we have to suppose that a crystalline limestone is to be included among them.   The
varieties      of     crystallized    substances
whether simple or compound that gem
the great fabric of the planet's  structure
are scattered sparsely through the mighty
bulk.   If we resolve these constituents of
the primitive  material of the  earth into
their chemical  elements  we find that the
great mass of them are made up of
Silica or quartz.
Alumina.
Lime.
Magnesia.
Carbon forming the bulk of coal and entering into carbonates, limestone, etc.
Oxygen.
Iron.
With the rest of the t_ elements represented in comparatively trilling quantity;
absolutely pure carbon '.he diamond*
pure alumina crystallized is the sapphire;
but leaving the treasures of the mineralogist on one side, merely recognizing their
numberless forms, we have to think of the
stratified rocks as chiefly derived from
1. Granite of various kinds.
2. Rocks akin to trap rock.
3. Limestone yielding both lime and
the carbon of coal and oxygen.
In the crystalline forms into which they
cooled from an originally liquid state
these rocks are possessed of a high degree
of hardness. The effect of time and water
with their constant attrition and of chemical action has been to soften and disintegrate. Very rarely they indurate again,
after they have been transformed into
stratified layers, into rocks with a hardness nearly equal to that of the primitive
material. But now they enclose animal
remains here and thero that botray tho
secret of the process—how sediment from
sea and lake bottoms has been molded and
hardened again into the stratified formations which we quarry into
2.    THK STRATIFIED ROCKS.
We now come to those processes that
have filled up the vast abyss of time, and
imagine the first thin crust to have formed
upon out plants. Tho sea will havo covered the whole surface, repeatedly in most
cases with intervals which represent for
each emerging continent an opoch of terrestrial life until it is once more submerged.
The Mctamorpltie Rocks  antl Archcan Era.
The earliest of all stratifications show
the original igneous rocks not much altered in appearance and composition but
laid in layers. Tho crust of the earth being still thin, these wero in close contact
with the molten mass beneath and were
naturally liable to undergo a partial
fusion—to be disrupted and overflowed by
lava, which is just what occurred. Lifo on
the planet was not then possible except
towards the end of the epoch and if organic
remains had^been imbedded thoy would
have been obliterated. But after this transition period the history of the globe is recorded in distinct epochs and the formations are known as (1) tho Archean; (2) the
primary or Paleozoic; (3) the secondary
orMesozoic; (4) the t.rtiary or Cenozoic;
(5) the posttertiary or Quarternary. The
rocks of the various epochs are identified
with the animal remains found in them
though the strata may difler in different
regions, and though in the same region
different eras of the epoch may give strata
composed of different materials laid one
upon the other.
The earliest stratifications then are called
Archean from the Greek word meaning
beginning. Gneiss and micaschist are the
most prominent of the earliest rocks and
have been already spoken of as the meta-
morphic. Following these come the ordinary limestones, sandstones and shales
known as the Huronian rock which lie on
the suface over a great part of British
America and are of enormous thickness.
To the south of that region the strata have
been inclined and distributed by upheaval
and Silurian rocks deposited upon them.
When this epoch had ended this portion,
viz: that with Huronian rocks at the surface represents tho whole of the North
American continent at that age and it has
never been submerged since.
Rocks of the Archean age contain no organic remains.
3.    THE SILURIAN ERA
followed and then the greater part of the
area of the United States was iu course of
manufacture, so to say, under a shallow
ocean.   At the end  of the era  these areas
emerged which havo these rocks at the
surface. Other areas emerge only to sink
again at some future epoch.. Tho area
which remains Silurian at the surface includes the greater part of the northern
half of the Kastern States with the exception of the Atlantic bonier and the coal
measures and red sandstones, and where
these are, the Silurian generally lie beneath them. The fossils found aro the remains of the lower forms of marine life.
Two periods are recognized—Upper and
I/)wer Silurian. Tho typical rock in the
Lower Silurian is the Hudson river or Cincinnati rocks; and in the Upper Silurian,
the Niagara rocks. Both Upper and Lower
Silurian include limestones, shales, (including slates) and sandstones.
The rolation of the Silurian **.i_d Archean
formation to agriculture may be thus
stated. When a thick layer of sandstone
is near the surface without any modifying
material of Quarteinary deposit the soil is
barren. The shales and slaty rocks form
cold and unfertile lands with frequent
bogs which are susceptible of Improvement by drainage and tho addition of
lime. Whon limestone occurs thero is
more hopo and a mixture of limo and clay
gives excellent soil. It must be romem-
berod that shale ahd slate are only forms
of indurated clay. Lastly, the metamor-
phic rocks with tlieir gneiss and mica-
schist give the barrenness of many mountain regions.
Written for the Indiana Farmer.
Canning and Other Methods of Putting
up Tomatoes.
to taste and then putting a weight on them
and let stand until the juice sours same as
kraut. When made this way freezing does
not spoil them as it would if they were in
vinegar.
By planting seeds in a box in March and
keeping them growing in a suitable place
until time to put out in the garden, one
can have tomatoes from July until very
late—later than frost, if the vines are covered witli fodder or something to protect
them during frosty nights and with canned
tomatoes, tomatoes pickled in the various ways, tomato catsup, molasses and
jam or marmalade, they—so far as health
is concerned—make an excellent substitute for fruit to thoso who cannot have
fruits in abundance.
For those who do not like tomatoes—
and tho number is not small—tbey can bo
combined with other articles and made
very palatable. One of the best combinations I know of is tomato and apple pudding, made by placing alternate layers of
apples and ripe tomatoes in a porcelain
kettle, seasoning to taste and adding flour
to thicken the juice and baking for an
hour with a moderately hot oven. Eaten
with cream it is delicious.
Never cook tomatoes in an iron vessel,
as I have seen many do, unless it is galvanized iron. Kven tin should not bo
used nor anything which acid will affect.
l_st year I covered tomato vines with
the brush that had been trimmed ott of
greon trees—maple—which had been cut
only a short timo and kept the tomatoes
ripening until hard freezing.
HY MRS. F. M. COOPER.
Tomatoes are such a healthful article of
diet that enough of them should be put
away to last from season to season. Perhaps there is no article which will keep
the liver in proper working so well as tomatoes. They have been called vegetable
calomel, but they can produce none of tho
ill ettects of that mercurial remedy which
has ruined thousands.
In whatever way anything can bo kept
that it will most resemble it while fresh
gives the best satisfaction and that method
is canning. Many peoplo fail to keep tomatoes well if canned in glass and as that
is the most dosirablo article in which to
keep any thing every housewife ought to
bo able to keep them as well in glass as
in tin.
I think there is but one essential lacking
for those who are successful in keeping
them in tin and that is darkness for tho
glass. This may be secured in three ways;
by wrapping paper around them, by keeping them in a dark place and by painting
the cans. I prefer painting the cans as
then they can be put anywhere regardless
of light or danger of paper getting pulled
off. I never have tomatoos to spoil when
canned in glass and what I can do others
certainly can. I think one essential is
having them well cooked. I never make
"preserves" out of anything, but tomatoes,
the yellow ones especially mako a beautiful preserve. Tomato butter or jam is very
nice and good and is made by sweetening
the tomatoes sufficiently and cooking
down like apple butter. Sugar is the
nicest sweetening, but good molasses does
very well, It should be put in gallon jars
and covered nicely and will keep a year in
a cool place.
Tomato molasses is very nice and is
made by taking the juice of tomatoes and
sweetening and boiling until thick enough.
It is hardly worth while to mention the
various ways of using green tomatotcs as
pickles. Each family has its own methods I presume; pickling by themselves,
mixing onions, cabbage, etc., with them;
but perhaps every one does not know that
they can be pickled without vinegar. This
can be done by slicing them and putting
down in jars with spices and horseradish
Senator Mount's Nomination.
Editors Indiana Farmer:
In the Farmer of August Oth, undor the
caption of "A good nomination," after eulogizing Senator Jiount, you use the following language: "If the farmers everywhere are as fortunate in selecting candidates the success of their causo is assured."
This languago is certainly misleading.
Anyone reading the above would conclude
at once that Senator Mount was put in
nomination by the farmers of his district,
whereas the facts in the case are he is the
regular nominee of the Republican party.
We do not write this in disparagement of
Senator Mount, but believing in "equal
and exact fjustice to all," simply'desire to
place his candidacy beforo the readers of
Farmer in its true light. W. L. D.
Carlisle, Sullivan Co.
—We had no thought of misleading any
reader by, tho larguage we used in speaking of Mr. Mount's nomination. We
meant our readers to understand that he
was the farmers' candidate in his party,
unless the farmers desired his nomination
he would not have been nominated. The
same is true of the nomination of Mr.
Claude Matthews by the opposite party to
the candidacy for Secretary of State. His
is a farmers' nomination, and a good one,
as we stato elsewhere; and it was because
he is a farmer that he received it. We repeat, that if farmers everywhere succeed
in securing the nomination of such men
as Senator Mount and Claude Matthews
tho success of their causo is assured.
A Question in Draining.
Editors Indiana Farmer:
I have a question for somo farmer that
has had some experience in draining hill
land. We have a piece of ^meadow that
needs tiling, there is about six acres in it;
it has a slope to the south of about one
foot in 20. Would it be better to drain
this all the way the water runs, or put
drains across tho hill from oast to west? I
can drain either way. Would like to hear
the scientific as well as the practical theory
of this. F. B.
Spencer.
—We wouldjrecouunend a diagonal main
but let those who have tried the different
plans be heard from.—Eds.
3____L___B__I_